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<title>Generative semantics</title>

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<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Generative semantics</span></span>

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="Formal_semantics_(natural_language)" title="Formal semantics (natural language)">semantics</a> as practiced within the framework of <a href="Generative_grammar" title="Generative grammar">generative grammar</a>, nor with <a href="General_semantics" title="General semantics">general semantics</a>.</div>

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<p><b>Generative semantics</b> was a research program in <a href="Theoretical_linguistics" title="Theoretical linguistics">theoretical linguistics</a> which held that <a href="Syntax" title="Syntax">syntactic structures</a> are computed on the basis of <a href="Meaning_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Meaning (linguistics)">meanings</a> rather than the other way around. Generative semantics developed out of <a href="Transformational-generative_grammar" class="mw-redirect" title="Transformational-generative grammar">transformational generative grammar</a> in the mid-1960s, but stood in opposition to it. The period in which the two research programs coexisted was marked by intense and often personal clashes now known as the <a href="Linguistics_wars" title="Linguistics wars">linguistics wars</a>. Its proponents included <a href="John_R._Ross" title="John R. Ross">Haj Ross</a>, <a href="Paul_Postal" title="Paul Postal">Paul Postal</a>, <a href="James_McCawley" class="mw-redirect" title="James McCawley">James McCawley</a>, and <a href="George_Lakoff" title="George Lakoff">George Lakoff</a>, who dubbed themselves "The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse".

</p><p>Generative semantics is no longer practiced under that name, though many of its central ideas have blossomed in the <a href="Cognitive_linguistics" title="Cognitive linguistics">cognitive linguistics</a> tradition. It is also regarded as a key part of the intellectual heritage of <a href="Head-driven_phrase_structure_grammar" title="Head-driven phrase structure grammar">head-driven phrase structure grammar</a> (HPSG) and <a href="Construction_grammar" title="Construction grammar">construction grammar</a>, and some of its insights live on in mainstream generative grammar. <a href="Pieter_Seuren" title="Pieter Seuren">Pieter Seuren</a> has developed a <b>semantic syntax</b> which is very close in spirit to the original generative semantics framework, which he played a role in developing.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Interpretive_or_generative?">Interpretive or generative?</h2></div>

<p>The controversy surrounding generative semantics stemmed in part from the competition between two fundamentally different approaches to <a href="Semantics" title="Semantics">semantics</a> within <a href="Transformational_grammar" title="Transformational grammar">transformational</a> <a href="Generative_grammar" title="Generative grammar">generative syntax</a>. In the 1960s, work in the generative tradition assumed that semantics was <i>interpretive</i> in the sense that the meaning of a sentence was computed on the basis of its syntactic structure rather than the other way around. In these approaches, syntactic structures were generated by rules stated in terms of syntactic structure alone, with no reference to meaning. Once generated, these structures would serve as the input to a semantic computation which would output a denotation. This approach captured the relationship between syntactic and semantic patterns, while allowing the syntax to work independently of the semantics, as Chomsky and others had argued for on the basis of empirical observations such as the famous "<a href="Colorless_green_ideas_sleep_furiously" title="Colorless green ideas sleep furiously">colorless green ideas sleep furiously</a>" sentence.

</p><p>The generative semantics framework took the opposite view, positing that syntactic structures are computed on the basis of meanings. In this approach, meanings were generated directly by the grammar as <a href="Deep_structure_and_surface_structure" title="Deep structure and surface structure">deep structures</a>, and were subsequently transformed into recognizable sentences by transformations. This approach necessitated more complex underlying structures than those proposed by Chomsky, and thus more complex transformations. Despite this additional complexity, the approach was appealing in several respects. First, it offered a powerful mechanism for explaining synonymity. In his initial work in generative syntax, Chomsky motivated transformations using <a href="Active_voice" title="Active voice">active</a>/<a href="Passive_voice" title="Passive voice">passive</a> pairs such as "I hit John" and "John was hit by me", which have different surface forms despite their identical truth conditions.<sup class=" nourlexpansion citation" id="ref_2"><a class="external autonumber external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generative_semantics#endnote_2">[1]</a></sup> Generative semanticists wanted to account for <i>all</i> cases of synonymity in a similar fashion, which proved to be a challenge given the tools available at the time. Second, the theory had a pleasingly intuitive structure: the form of a sentence was quite literally <i>derived</i> from its meaning via transformations. To some, interpretive semantics seemed rather "clunky" and <i>ad hoc</i> in comparison. This was especially so before the development of <a href="Trace_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Trace (linguistics)">trace theory</a>.

</p><p>Despite its opposition to generative grammar, the generative semantics project operated largely in Chomskyan terms. Most importantly, the generative semanticists, following Chomsky, were opposed to <a href="Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">behaviorism</a> and accepted his idea that language is <a href="Language_acquisition" title="Language acquisition">acquired</a> and not learned.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chomsky and Lakoff were united by their opposition to the establishment of <a href="Formal_semantics_(natural_language)" title="Formal semantics (natural language)">formal semantics</a> in the 1970s.<sup id="cite_ref-Partee_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Partee-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The notion that meaning generates grammar is itself old and fundamental to the <a href="Port-Royal_Grammar" title="Port-Royal Grammar">Port-Royal Grammar</a> (1660), <a href="Ferdinand_de_Saussure" title="Ferdinand de Saussure">Saussure's</a> <a href="Course_in_General_Linguistics" title="Course in General Linguistics">Course in General Linguistics</a> (1916), and <a href="Lucien_Tesni%C3%A8re" title="Lucien Tesnière">Tesnière's</a> <a href="Dependency_grammar" title="Dependency grammar">dependency grammar</a> (1957) among others. By contrast, generative semantics was faced with the problem of explaining the emergence of meaning in <a href="Neuroscience" title="Neuroscience">neuro-biological</a> rather than social and rational terms. This problem was solved in the 1980s by Lakoff in his version of <a href="Cognitive_linguistics#Cognitive_Linguistics_(linguistics_framework)" title="Cognitive linguistics">Cognitive Linguistics</a>, according to which language generates through <a href="Sensory_experience" class="mw-redirect" title="Sensory experience">sensory experience</a>. Thus, engaging with the physical world provides the person with <a href="Visual_system" title="Visual system">visual</a>, <a href="Somatosensory_system" title="Somatosensory system">tactile</a> and other sensory input, which crystallizes into language in the form of <a href="Conceptual_metaphor" title="Conceptual metaphor">conceptual metaphors</a>, organizing <a href="Rational_thinking" class="mw-redirect" title="Rational thinking">rational thinking</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Lakoff_1990_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lakoff_1990-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such a view of the mind has not been fully approved by neuroscientists.<sup id="cite_ref-Freeman_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Freeman-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div>

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</style><span class="citation wikicite" id="endnote_1"><b><a href="#ref_1">^</a></b></span> There is little agreement concerning the question of whose idea generative semantics was. All of the people mentioned here have been credited with its invention (often by each other).

</p><p><span class="citation wikicite" id="endnote_2"><b><a href="#ref_2">^</a></b></span> Strictly speaking, it was not the fact that active/passive pairs are <i>synonymous</i> that motivated the passive transformation, but the fact that active and passive verb forms have the same <i>selectional requirements</i>. For example, the agent of the verb <i>kick</i> (i.e. the thing that's doing the kicking) must be animate whether it is the subject of the active verb (as in "<b>John</b> kicked the ball") or appears in a <i>by</i> phrase after the passive verb ("The ball was kicked by <b>John</b>").

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<ul><li><a href="Cognitive_revolution" title="Cognitive revolution">Cognitive revolution</a></li>

<li><a href="Generative_linguistics" class="mw-redirect" title="Generative linguistics">Generative linguistics</a></li>

<li><a href="Minimal_recursion_semantics" title="Minimal recursion semantics">Minimal recursion semantics</a></li>

<li><a href="Origin_of_language" title="Origin of language">Origin of language</a></li>

<li><a href="Origin_of_speech" title="Origin of speech">Origin of speech</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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</style><cite id="CITEREFNewmeyer,_Frederick,_J.1986" class="citation book cs1">Newmeyer, Frederick, J. (1986). <i>Linguistic Theory in America</i> (Second ed.). Academic Press.</cite><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{cite book}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)</span> See p. 138.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFSeuren2021" class="citation journal cs1">Seuren, Pieter (28 January 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cadernos.abralin.org/index.php/cadernos/article/view/290">"Essentials of Semantic Syntax: an Appetiser"</a>. <i>Cadernos de Linguística</i>. <b>2</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">01–</span>20. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.25189%2F2675-4916.2021.V2.N1.ID290">10.25189/2675-4916.2021.V2.N1.ID290</a></span>. <a href="Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/21.11116%2F0000-0007-DAE7-F">21.11116/0000-0007-DAE7-F</a></span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 March</span> 2022</span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://global.oup.com/academic/product/the-linguistics-wars-9780199740338"><i>The Linguistics Wars: Chomsky, Lakoff, and the Battle over Deep Structure</i></a>. Oxford University Press. 15 October 2021. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-19-974033-8</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Partee-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Partee_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFPartee2011" class="citation book cs1">Partee, Barbara (2011). "Formal Semantics: Origins, Issues, Early Impact". <i>The Baltic International Yearbook of Cognition, Logic and Communication</i>. Vol. 6. BIYCLC. pp. <span class="nowrap">1–</span>52. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4148%2Fbiyclc.v6i0.1580">10.4148/biyclc.v6i0.1580</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-Lakoff_1990-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lakoff_1990_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFLakoff1990" class="citation journal cs1">Lakoff, George (1990). "Invariance hypothesis: is abstract reasoning based on image-schemas?". <i>Cognitive Linguistics</i>. <b>1</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">39–</span>74. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2Fcogl.1990.1.1.39">10.1515/cogl.1990.1.1.39</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144380802">144380802</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-Freeman-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Freeman_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFFreeman2008" class="citation journal cs1">Freeman, Jeremy (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thenationalnews.com/arts-culture/books/mind-games-1.233084">"Mind Games"</a>. <b>9</b> (Jul 03).</cite> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{cite journal}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">Cite journal requires <code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> (help)</span></span>

</li>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2></div>

<ul><li><a href="Michael_K._Brame" class="mw-redirect" title="Michael K. Brame">Brame, Michael K.</a> (1976). <i>Conjectures and refutations in syntax and semantics</i>. New York: North-Holland Pub. Co. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-7204-8604-1</bdi>.</li>

<li>Chomsky (1957). <i><a href="Syntactic_Structures" title="Syntactic Structures">Syntactic Structures</a></i>. The Hague: Mouton.</li>

<li>Chomsky (1965). <i><a href="Aspects_of_the_Theory_of_Syntax" title="Aspects of the Theory of Syntax">Aspects of the Theory of Syntax</a></i>. Cambridge: The MIT Press.</li>

<li>Chomsky (1965). <i>Cartesian linguistics</i>. New York: Harper and Row.</li>

<li><a href="Ray_C._Dougherty" title="Ray C. Dougherty">Dougherty, Ray C.</a> (1974). Generative semantics methods: A Bloomfieldian counterrevolution. <i>International Journal of Dravidian Linguistics</i>, <i>3</i>, 255-286.</li>

<li>Dougherty, Ray C. (1975). Reply to the critics on the Bloomfieldian counterrevolution. <i>International Journal of Dravidian Linguistics</i>, <i>4</i>, 249-271.</li>

<li><a href="Jerry_A._Fodor" class="mw-redirect" title="Jerry A. Fodor">Fodor, Jerry A.</a>; & <a href="Jerrold_J._Katz" class="mw-redirect" title="Jerrold J. Katz">Katz, Jerrold J.</a> (Eds.). (1964). <i>The structure of language</i>. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.</li>

<li>Harris, Randy Allen. (1995). <i>The linguistics wars</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-19-509834-X</bdi>.</li>

<li>Huck, Geoffrey J.; & <a href="John_Goldsmith_(linguist)" title="John Goldsmith (linguist)">Goldsmith, John A.</a> (1995). <i>Ideology and Linguistic Theory: Noam Chomsky and the deep structure debates</i>. New York: Routledge.</li>

<li><a href="Jerrold_J._Katz" class="mw-redirect" title="Jerrold J. Katz">Katz, Jerrold J.</a>; & Fodor, Jerry A. (1964). The structure of a semantic theory. In J. A. Fodor & J. J. Katz (Eds.) (pp. 479–518).</li>

<li>Katz, Jerrold J.; & Postal, Paul M. (1964). <i>An integrated theory of linguistic descriptions</i>. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.</li>

<li><a href="George_Lakoff" title="George Lakoff">Lakoff, George</a>. (1971). On generative semantics. In D. D. Steinberg & L. A. Jakobovits (Eds.), <i>Semantics: An interdisciplinary reader in philosophy, linguistics and psychology</i> (pp. 232–296). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</li>

<li>Lakoff, George. (1976 [1963]). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cloudfront.escholarship.org/dist/prd/content/qt64m2z2b1/qt64m2z2b1.pdf">Toward generative semantics</a>. In J. D. McCawley (Ed.) (pp. 43–61).</li>

<li>Lakoff, George; & Ross, John R. [Háj]. (1976). Is deep structure necessary?. In J. D. McCawley (Ed.), <i>Syntax and semantics 7</i> (pp. 159–164).</li>

<li><a href="James_D._McCawley" title="James D. McCawley">McCawley, James D.</a> (1975). Discussion of Ray C. Dougherty's "Generative semantics methods: A Bloomfieldian counterrevolution". <i>International Journal of Dravidian Linguistics</i>, <i>4</i>, 151-158.</li>

<li>McCawley, James D. (Ed.). (1976a). <i>Syntax and semantics 7: Notes from the linguistic underground</i>. New York: Academic Press.</li>

<li>McCawley, James D. (1976b). <i>Grammar and meaning</i>. New York: Academic Press.</li>

<li>McCawley, James D. (1979). <i>Adverbs, vowels, and other objects of wonder</i>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.</li>

<li><a href="Paul_M._Postal" class="mw-redirect" title="Paul M. Postal">Postal, Paul M.</a> (1972). The best theory. In S. Peters (Ed.), <i>Goals of linguistic theory</i>. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.</li>

<li><a href="John_R._Ross" title="John R. Ross">Ross, John R.</a> (1967). Constraints on variables in syntax. (Doctoral dissertation, Massachusetts Institute of Technology). Free copy available at <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://hdl.handle.net/1721.1/15166">http://hdl.handle.net/1721.1/15166</a>. (Published as Ross 1986).</li>

<li>Ross, John R. (1986). <i>Infinite syntax!</i>. Norwood, NJ: ABLEX, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-89391-042-2</bdi>.</li>

<li>Ross, John R. [Háj]. (1970). On declarative sentences. In R. A. Jacobs & P. S. Rosenbaum (Eds.), <i>Readings in English transformational grammar</i> (pp. 222–272). Washington: Georgetown University Press.</li>

<li>Ross, John R. [Háj]. (1972). Doubl-ing. In J. Kimball (Ed.), <i>Syntax and semantics</i> (Vol. 1, pp. 157–186). New York: Seminar Press.</li>

<li><a href="Pieter_Seuren" title="Pieter Seuren">Seuren, Pieter A. M.</a> (1974). <i>Semantic syntax</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-19-875028-5</bdi>.</li></ul></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

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